The patriarchate of Alexandria flourished as one of the premier centers of Eastern Christian intellectual, ecclesial, and political life until the middle of the 7th century.Initially, the patriarchate of Alexandria was ranked second to Rome in ecclesial priority.
In 381 the third canon of the Second Ecumenical Council declared that the patriarchate of Constantinople would henceforth rank higher than Alexandria and thus it assumed precedence in the whole East, a state of affairs initially resisted in Egypt. In 451 the 28th canon of the Fourth Ecumenical Council reaffirmed the priority of the patriarchate of Constantinople over that of Alexandria. Despite being overshadowed by the sees of Rome and Constantinople, the patriarchate of Alexandria undoubtedly set the foundational framework and trajectory for Christian theology. For example, the Logos theologians of Alexandria, most notably Clement (ca. 150-215) and Origen (ca. 185ca. 251), significantly shaped future patristic reflections upon the person and nature of Jesus Christ. Also,
Alexandrian hierarchs such as St. Athanasius of Alexandria (ca. 293373) and St.Cyril of Alexandria (ca. 378444) advanced what would become the classical Orthodox expression of the mystery of the incarnate Lord.
Within the Roman Empire, theological and political allegiances often aligned together in ways that could either strengthen or weaken any given patriarchate, whether Rome, Constantinople, or another major see. In this volatile context, the patriarchate of Alexandria managed to grow into a significant political force.
Further, in the 3rd century, Egyptian monasticism developed into a burgeoning movement that indelibly shaped Alexandrian Christianity (Chitty 1999). In brief, the convergence of the ecclesial, political, theological, and monastic streams into one dynamic confluence infused Alexandrian Christianity with long-lasting vitality. The following summary begins with a brief historical sketch of the city of Alexandria,followed by a list of the patriarchs of Alexandria from the 1st century up to the 8th. There then follows an overview of the most influential bishops, pivotal councils,and exceptional theological and spiritual movements that bear witness to the enduring significance of the patriarchate of Alexandria.
THE CITY OF ALEXANDRIA
Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE), is strategically situated at the mouth of the Nile. The city boasted two harbors and was a hub of trade routes that provided access to the Mediterranean and Southeast Asia. As an international commercial port city, Alexandria attracted merchants from all over the known world,who in turn brought their religious and philosophical traditions into the Hellenistic city. Upon his conquest of Egypt, between 332 and 331 BCE, Alexander drew up plans for the layout of a new metropolis.Alexandria was divided into five neighborhoods, identified by the Greek letters A to E.
The indigenous Egyptians (known by the Greek abbreviation of Copts) lived in the section called Rakotis, which was located in the southwest section of Alexandria.
The native Egyptians usually belonged to one of the Hellenistic religions and likely participated in the rites of one of the nearby pagan temples. The great Temple of Serapis (founded by the early Ptolemies) was located in the heart of Rakotis. The Jews predominantly inhabited a separate sector in Alexandria. Since the Jewish quarter was afforded a significant amount of autonomy, the Jews were able to maintain, at a high level, a distinct cultural and religious identity (Haas 1977: 91127).
Jewish intellectuals, most notably Philo of Alexandria (20 BCE-50 CE), were influential forerunners that shaped later Christianity, especially through the persons of Clement and Origen of Alexandria.
Alexander the Great’s successor was his childhood friend and general, Ptolemy I Soter (ca. 367ca. 283 BCE). Under Ptolemy’s governance, Alexandria grew into a great Hellenistic center. Hellenism continued to blossom under Ptolemy Philadelphus (309-246 BCE), his son. Ptolemy Philadelphus founded the Great Library in Alexandria, which was first burned in 48 BCE when Caesar defeated Antony and Cleopatra. In 391 the second iteration of the Great Library was partially destroyed during the tenure of the anti-Origenist Patriarch Theophilus (384-412). Rather than seeking the total annihilation of the library, Theophilus only ordered the destruction of the pagan library holdings associated with the Temple of Sarapis. Consequently, many of the larger cultural Hellenistic writings remained extant after the anti-Origenist movement of the 4th century. In 641 Islamic invaders captured Alexandria and possibly destroyed some of the holdings within the Alexandrian library, but undoubtedly (since the Byzantine emperor arranged a year-long truce to allow cultural and religious artifacts to be shipped to Rome and Constantinople for safe keeping) the vast majority of materials were safely transferred. In brief, the Alexandrian library was one of the finest collections in all Antiquity. The existence of the Great Library positioned Alexandria to be the leading Hellenistic intellectual center.
Origen, the first internationally respected philosopher among the Christians, based his exegetical mission on the literary tradition of the library (McGuckin 2001).
Hellenism was a significant intellectual and cultural force that, to one degree or another, influenced Christianity, Judaism,
and other religious movements of Late Antiquity. Ancient Alexandria has been described as a multicultural milieu, where Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism, and the Egyptian indigenous religions coexisted with one another in an international milieu. According to some ancient observers, the lines between one religion and another were often blurred in Alexandria. In a letter attributed to Hadrian (Vita Saturnini 8), Christian worshippers are depicted as if they were giving reverence to Sarapis, the popular Egyptian God. Further,
Hadrian observed pagans who worshipped Sarapis in a style that resembled the Christians. The blurring of lines is further revealed by Alexandrian religious leaders,
whether Christians, Jews, or others,
who experimented in astrology (Vita Saturnini 8).
The so-called multiculturalism of Alexandria was complex and dynamic;
consequently, it is difficult to fully depict the overall situation in a comprehensive manner. At times, the various religious groups coexisted in a symbiosis where in
Hellenism provided an overarching matrix that promoted assimilation among the religious subcultures. Yet, on numerous other occasions, religious enclaves asserted their group identities over and against one another and the dominant Hellenistic culture (Haas 1977: 4590).
The Gnostic Christian Basilides was the first notable Alexandrian biblical exegete,
who blossomed into a prominent figure during the reigns of the Emperors Adrian and Antoninus Pius (ca. 12040). Basilides probably studied with Glaukios, reputed to be a confidant and translator for the Apostle Peter. Following Basilides, the influential Alexandrian Gnostic Valentinus (ca. 100ca. 160) was almost installed as a bishop of Rome. From what we know of inchoate Alexandrian Christianity, Pantaenus was the first orthodox pedagogue residing in Alexandria. According to the church historian Eusebius of Caesarea (H.E. 10), sometime around 180 Pantaenus founded the first Alexandrian catechetical school. Clement of Alexandria succeeded Pantaenus as the leading Christian pedagogue in Alexandria. Clement was one of the first formidable early philosophertheologians to develop Christian doctrine through reading the Holy Scriptures,adhering to the rule of faith (regula fidei),and strategically appropriating Hellenistic thought and culture. Clement advanced Logos theology while at the same time highlighting a spiritual culture of knowledge (gno¯sis) that would have been resonant with his Gnostic contemporaries.
Origen of Alexandria further developed the Logos theology of his antecedents. Without a doubt, Origen stands as the most influential theologian of the early church.
Origen, even more so than Clement, was keenly aware of the usefulness and apparent dangers inherent within Greek philosophy.
In Origen’s Letter to Theodore (also known as his Letter to Gregory), he explains his approach to his disciple Gregory Thaumatourgos, the later apostle of Cappadocia. In this correspondence Origen admonishes Gregory carefully to employ Greek philosophy in the spirit of the Exodus Jews spoiling the Egyptians. Christian theologians should take from the Greeks whatever is useful for the worship of God and the interpretation of Scripture.
However, Christians need to be prayerful and diligent, or else they may easily become infected by the “poisons” of paganism (see Origen, Letter to Theodore). Origen’s strategic appropriation of Greek philosophy became paradigmatic for future generations of Christian theologians.
THE PATRIARCHATE OF ALEXANDRIA
There is little information regarding the patriarchate of Alexandria from the first two centuries of the Common Era. The shared tradition of both the Greek East and Latin West affirms that St. Mark the Evangelist founded the Church of Alexandria. In a letter attributed to Clement of Alexandria, we are told that St. Mark’s witness and theology became influential in Alexandria by the 2nd century. The first attestation of Mark’s connection with Alexandria is not explicitly recorded until the 4th century (Eusebius, H.E. 2.16).
In his Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius provides a list of the early Alexandrian patriarchs. However, Eusebius’s list provides minimal information about the early patriarchs other than simply providing their names; further, the accuracy of his early account is controverted. Apart from Eusebius, Jerome’s Chronicle also provides information concerning the patriarchate of Alexandria. In chronological order,
with the approximate dates of each tenure set in parentheses, these early leaders of the Alexandrian Church are as follows: Mark the apostle (?); Annianus (62-84/85);
Avilius (84/85-98); Cerdon (98-110),
who was a presbyter ordained by Saint Mark; Primus (110-22), also called Ephraim; Justus (122-30/32); Eumenes (132-43); Mark II (143-53); Celadion (15367); Agrippinus (167-79); Julian (17989/90). After Julian, Eusebius provides a little more detail concerning the Alexandrian bishops; the successive list of bishops comprises Demetrius (189/190233);
Heraclas (23-347); Dionysius (24-764);
Maximus (26-482). Following Maximus,
the Alexandrian bishops, with verifiable dates of tenure, are Theonas (282-300);
Peter the Martyr (300-11); Achillas (31112); Alexander (312-28); Athanasius (32873); Peter II (373-80); Timothy I (380-4); Theophilus (384-412); Cyril (412-44); Dioscorus (444-51); Proterius (451-7); Timothy II Aelurus (457-60),
a Miaphysite; Timothy II Salofaciolos (46075), a Chalcedonian; Timothy II Aelurus (4757), his second time as bishop;
Peter III Mongus (477), a Miaphysite;
Timothy IISalofaciolos(477-82),hissecond time as bishop; John I Talaia (482),
a Chalcedonian; Peter III Mongus (4829),
his second tenure; Athanasius II Keletes (489-96), a Miaphysite; John I (496-505),
a Miaphysite; John II (505-16); Dioscorus II (516-17); and Timothy III (517-35),
a Miaphysite.
After the Council of Chalcedon in 451,
a schism erupted between the Miaphysite and the Chalcedonian theologians. As a result of the schism, from 535 up through the Arab conquests of Alexandria, there existed two lines of Alexandrian patriarchs.
The Melkite (Greek Byzantine) party supported Chalcedonian Christology; conversely, the Coptic party supported protoCyrilline or Miaphysite Christology. The Melkite patriarchal line runs as follows:
Paul of Tabenn (537-40); Zoile (540-1);
Apollinarius (54170); John II (57080);
Eulogius (580608); Theodore the Scribe (6089); John III the Almoner (60919);
George (62030); Cyrus (630/63143/44);
Peter III (643/64451); uncertain gap in the patriarchate; Theodore (655 Synod);
Peter IV (680 Council); Theophylact (695 Council); Onophes (711); Eusebius (?);
Cosmas I (74268); and Politian (768813).
The Coptic patriarchal line (with Julianists noted) runs as follows: Theodosius (53566);
the Julianists: Gaianus (535); Elpidius (?565); Dorotheus (565ca. 580); Theodore (57585), who was not received by the majority; Peter IV (575-8); Damien (578607); Anastasius (60719); Andronicus (619-26); Benjamin (626-65); Julianists:
Menas (634); Agathon (665-81); John III (6819); Isaac (689-92); Simon I (692-700);
Julianist: Theodore (695); vacancy for three years; Alexander II (704-29); Cosmas (72930); Theodore II (73042); one year vacancy; Michael I (743-67); Menas (76775); and John IV (776-99).
Under the episcopate of Demetrius (189/
190-233) the Alexandrian see increased in power and prestige. At this time, every other Egyptian bishop was subordinated to the see of Alexandria. Beyond extending control over his suffragan bishops, Demetrius seized internal control within the city of Alexandria. His well-known conflict with Origen eventually led to the dismissal of the controversial Alexandrian theologian, and his relocation to Caesarea of Palestine. Without a doubt, the Church of Alexandria increased in power on account of Demetrius’astuteness and energetic zeal.
Demetrius’ successor, Origen’s disciple Heraclas (233-47), continued to advance the unity and prestige of the Egyptian Church through his disciplinary action.
Heraclas deposed Ammonius the bishop of Thmuis, and refused to reconcile Origen.
Dionysius (249-65) succeeded Heraclas as the leader of the Alexandrian Church. From
Dionysius onward, the Alexandrian Church and its powerful bishop served in the dual role of both ecclesial and political leader in Eastern Christian affairs (Hardy 1952: 19).
Under the Edict of Decius, delivered in January 250, the Alexandrian Church endured harsh persecution. Many citizens,
or at the very least those citizens suspected of being Christian, were required to show their certificate (libelli) in order to prove they had sacrificed to the Egyptian gods.
The Decian persecution (250-1) was shortlived; nonetheless it significantly impacted the Christian imagination,
Christian self-understanding, and the Egyptian ecclesiology specifically. The Decian persecution produced Alexandrian martyrs who served as models of piety for their fellow Christians. Following the cessation of hostilities, the Alexandrian Church needed to develop a strategy for readmitting those Christians who lapsed under the weight of the Decian persecution.
Ultimately, the Patriarch Dionysius adopted a moderate position, whereby he permitted the receiving back of the lapsed after they had served an appropriate penance.
Furthermore, the Christian confessors,
who had often endured imprisonment and punishment during the Decian persecution,
were significant actors in the reconciliation of the lapsed. In order to usher in the reconciliation of the lapsed, Christian confessors prayed on behalf of their weaker co-religionists. Archbishop Maximus (265-82) succeeded Dionysius; and Theonas (292-301) assumed the see of Alexandria after Maximus. By the end of the 3rd century, the Coptic language was used widely throughout Christian Egypt in preference to Greek (Hardy 1952: 34). The 4th century ushered in the momentous age of Constantine’s Christian Roman Empire.
The Arian crisis was probably the most significant theological controversy of the 4th century. It derived its name from Ariu
ca. 250/256336), a priest of Baukalis, the dockland district of Alexandria, a charismatic presbyter who gained numerous followers throughout the city during the early decades of the 4th century. Arius’ Christology was an outgrowth of the earlier Alexandrian Logos theology which failed to declare the full equality of the Logos with the Father, the supreme God.Ariusandthosewhosharedsimilartheological leanings subordinated the Logos (and de facto Jesus) below the Father, who alone was confessed as the true God.
The Patriarch Alexander (322-8) declared Arius guilty of heresy and excommunicated the popular Alexandrian presbyter. In 325, at the Council of Nicea, Arius was officially condemned. However, the condemnation of Arius only signaled the beginning of the series of ongoing theological debates that dominated the 4th-century ecclesial landscape. In 328 Athanasius of Alexandria succeeded Alexander and soon emerged as the leading proponent of Nicene theology.
Athanasius’s adherence to the Nicene confession (though his own preference was not for homoousion but for the more explicit tautotes tes ousias identity of essence between Father and Son) would eventually emerge as the international definitive statement of Orthodox Christology.
However,before the victory of Nicenism at the Council of Constantinople in 381, there was intense debate throughout the era over the Orthodox expression of the mystery of Jesus Christ. In all the debates Alexandrian theologians set the tone. Following the Council of Nicea, Athanasius’s steadfast refusal to compromise adherence to the homoousion, in the face of imperial changes of policy, led to his expulsion from Alexandria on several occasions. In 335 Athanasius was condemned and deposed at the Council of Tyre. He returned from exile after Constantine’s death in 337. Athanasius soon fled again, this time to Rome, where he was welcomed as a defender of
No comments:
Post a Comment